Archive of the Month01 Oct 25

Early Printed Books in the RCB Library

By Helen Crawford–Walsh, Assistant Librarian, RCB Library

Have you ever opened an older book and run your fingertips over the raised text?  This thrill is enhanced by the inclusion of images; those ‘simple’ line pictures that add understanding and appreciation of the words that are being read.  This month’s Archive of the Month turns to treasures and wonders in the RCB Library’s little known printed collection, with specific focus on early printed illustrations, woodcuts and wood engraving.

While all the books in our Special Reserve Collection (prefixed ‘SR’ in the catalogue) have text – including English, Irish, Latin, German, French, Spanish, Italian and Greek – several have also been printed using manual printing presses, and some have the bonus of containing illustrations.

The conveying of stories, knowledge and meaning through pictures predates the written word, in any form.  Cave drawings dating back tens of thousands of years and have been found all over the world.  The first foray into adding images to printed text was undertaken in Europe in the 15th century using wood, knives, black ink and the creative use of white space.  The very earliest ‘mass’ produced images can be of many different things: elaborate title pages that enticed the reader to seek out a particular printer, initial letters, line borders and ultimately to part or full–page illustrations – from simple to detailed and retained pictures – that highlight and convey meaning and understanding for sometimes dense text and complicated prose.

For context we need to go back a step or two to the beginning of printing, and all the components that are required to create a page with inked markings. 

Paper

Paper came to Europe early in the 12th century, having been made and used in China for centuries.  It was made by changing raw material (undyed linen or hempen) into pulp – known as ‘stuff’ – which is then scoped into a mould and deckle frame to form flat pieces of paper.  This occurred after a labour and time intensive process of allowing the material to rot, being intermediately hammered to break down the fibres and washing out impurities (Gaskell, 1972). 

Ink

Gaskell (1972) also details how black ink was made from two ingredients; colour and varnish.  The colour was produced by burning resin and condensing its smoke, and then being added to a, also condensed, mix of nut or linseed oil and resin.  The addition of resin was found to help prevent the ink spreading on the paper. 

Printing Press

The ‘common’ printing press of this era was adapted from screw presses used for wine or olive oil production.  The structure was made of wood and featured a heavy plate – known as a platen – that was screwed down to press paper onto inked type. Earliest print was formed on one woodblock.  It involved carving the entire page – whether text or image – on one block.  Images were sometimes included in these woodblocks, but each new idea or change in formatting or wording required a new block to be carved.  The same image could not be used with different type, and it was a skilled and laborious task to begin again.

Printing therefore had to change as well – hand burnishing (where pressure was applied by hand to transfer the ink to paper) was no longer an option with so many more copies required.  The manual hand printing press was a revolution that has changed how we learn, read and communicate and it revolutionised literacy and learning.  The invention of movable type – where each letter was carved separately from another allowed for mistakes to be corrected and multiple settings to be made using the same letters. A frame (forme) was set with text, in negative relief, and a practice print would be taken.  Any mistakes could be easily rectified, and multiple pages of the same formes were then printed.  The use of movable type also allowed for images to be positioned within the text at the correct position and, like the type, used in multiple ways and in different books. 

The standard of the paper and ink used during printing had a huge effect on the outcome, not just the competence of the block maker or printer.  Ink and paper were being traded widely by the beginning of the 16th century and with this increase in quantity came fluctuations in quality.  For example, ink that was low in pigment caused issues like fading, grey–toned print or bleeding into or through the paper.  Low grade paper, made from rags (Steinberg, 1955) exacerbated these issues and, as demonstrated in the image below, ink bleeding from printing on both sides of thinner paper makes it very difficult to read.

The first printed books, using woodcut decorations, are believed to have been produced in the mid to late 15th century.  The ability to print text and illustrations together, in the same printing forme, and sell multiple prints of the same book changed printing forever.  

Carter (1980) gives a simple explanation of the difference between a woodcut and a wood–engraving; a woodcut (15th century) is ‘cut’ by a knife, while a wood–engraving (18th century) is ‘engraved’ with a graver or a burin.  It can be difficult to tell the difference between the two as a lesser artist may engrave an image that a more talented artist could render in a woodcut, however woodcuts used the flat of the wood – along the grain or plank – which, while giving a larger surface to work with was softer and caused the image to be less defined and more easily damaged, while wood–engraving used the end of the plank – across the grain – where the wood is a harder, tighter and smoother matrix (surface that holds ink after it has been cut or carved) which allows for finer detail and sharper, clearer lines than woodcut. A demonstration of the Woodcut Process can be watched here.  You will see how the image is left raised – in relief – while the blank areas of the illustration are carved away to cause a void where no ink adheres to.  

Tone, shading and definition are produced by using groups of closely spaced lines (Gaskell, 1972). These parallel or cross–hatched lines produced shading and toning.  Changing the use of relief, so that the ink has move surface to adhere to, changed the mood of the image – the depiction of Hell by Gustave Duré below shows this beautifully with the use of reversing the ‘traditional’ image in relief and background remaining white, to highlight Hell. The wear and tear on the woodcut blocks paved the way for wood–engraving to emerge.  By changing the direction in which the woodgrain was cut, a harder matrix was exposed.  As mentioned already the finer grain allowed for finer lines and more detailed images.  This also meant that the block could withstand the pressure it was put under within the pressing machine for a longer period of use.  Although the more detailed image may have taken longer to produce, the benefit was it could be used more often.

The use, importance and impact of these first types of printed images are wide and numerous medical, geographical, cultural and invention spheres (Dow, 1951) as well as religion. The mass production of bibles and theological books on printing presses, made them more accessible and affordable (Eisenstein, 1980).  The inclusion of illustrations within these texts increased their reach even further.  As the ability of the wood carvers grew and developed, the images became more intricate. The ‘invention’, by Schöffer, of what we would now call a title page, occurred in 1463.  Prior to this a, usually, blank page was used to preserve the first page of text from dirt and damage while awaiting binding in the printer’s work room (Steinberg, 1955).  Fancy, skilful borders of title pages became ‘a true reflection of the general taste of the reading public’ (Steinberg, 1955, p. 108).   Intricate and decorative woodcut borders dominated title pages in the early 16th century, with many artists becoming very well–known because of them. 

The highly decorated title page falls out of favour with some during the 16th century, for plainer title pages that consisted of basic typography, until its revival through wood engravings. In–book enhancements came in many forms; simple lines that edged the text, ornaments that added decoration, embellished chapters or paragraphs. These enhancements could be as large as a full page picture or as small as a manicule; a mark shaped like a pointing hand to draw the readers attention to important paragraphs.

Religious orders, churches and royalty had the money to employ those undertaking these intense techniques.  Dondi (2013) states that members of these organisations were actively involved in all areas of the printing process as benefactors, editors, collectors, authors, translators, printers, readers and owners. The integration of woodcut and wood engraving into theological books was not merely decorative, but served to enrich the learning and understanding of the sacred messages within. These illustrations functioned as visual exegesis, providing context and interpretation.

Strachan states that illustrations in early bibles made them ‘appeal to the less learned readers whose comprehension would be helped by the illustrations’ (1957, p 5) while he also suggests that pictures could have been a means for a preacher to gain inspiration for his sermon from the pictures or illuminate and convey meaning through them.  They may be adjuncts that helped with understanding and engagement through: Symbolism that represented abstract theological concepts. Poses or facial expressions conveyed emotions and the weight of events. Scenes depicting virtues and vices served as moral lessons, guiding readers in their spiritual and ethical lives. Concepts were interpreted within the images, making them more accessible. Incorporating images into religious texts enriched personal devotion and communal worship, fostering a deeper connection to the sacred.

Woodcut and wood engraving were once the pinnacle of book illustration that allowed text to be transformed into visual sermons.  They may have been replaced by intaglio and etchings, but they came back into prominence again in the 19th century, particularly in the production of illustrated religious texts and hymnals.  Artists like Thomas Bewick and Gustave Doré elevated wood–engraving to an art form, creating images that resonated deeply with religious themes and narrative.  Clutton Brock et al. (1924) state very succinctly that ‘…art is in fact religious.  The object of art is not to give pleasure, as our fathers assumed, but to express the highest spiritual realities.  Art is not only delightful; it is necessary’ (p. v) 

The printing of books did not begin in Europe until about 1455 (Strachan, 1957) and in English until much later.  Therefore, the first early printed, and illustrated books, – mostly bibles or books connected to theology – are outside our collection, not just because of the language, but due to their rarity. 

The most famous and wonderful example of woodcut and wood engraved illustrated theological text is the Liber chronicarum (more commonly known as The Nuremburg Chronicle) (1493) which features 1,809 woodcut illustrations that clarify, explain and embellish the ‘universal history’ as compiled by Hartmann Schedel (1440––1514). The Library of Congress informs us that ‘Michael Wolgemut and his son–in–law Wilhelm Pleydenwurff executed the illustrations in around 1490, a time when their workshop was at its artistic peak and the young Albrecht Dürer was just completing his apprenticeship there.’

While the RCB Library does not hold their best–known works, we do have books with images crafted by the renowned artists shown below:

 The woodcut and wood engraving techniques in theological rare books are more than merely decorative elements; they are theological expressions that bridge the sacred and the visual. These illustrations continue to inspire and educate, offering a glimpse into the spiritual and artistic heritage of our ancestors.  By preserving and studying these works, we honour the legacy of faith and artistry that has shaped our understanding of the divine.

So, the next time you open an early illustrated book, run your fingers over those crisp lines of ink that hold joy unto itself.